The Writing Process
1 Explore and plan.
a Assess the writing situation.
b Explore your subject.
c Draft a working thesis.
d Sketch a plan.
2 Draft the paper.
a Draft an introduction that includes a
thesis.
b Draft the body.
c Draft a conclusion.
3 Make global revisions; then revise sentences.
a Make global revisions: Think Big.
b Revise and edit sentences.
c Proofread the manuscript.
d Use software tools wisely.
e Manage your files.
STUDENT ESSAY
4 Build effective paragraphs.
a Focus on a main point.
b Develop the main point.
c Choose a suitable pattern of organization.
d Make paragraphs coherent.
e Adjust paragraph length.
Academic Writing
5 Writing about texts
a Read actively: Annotate the text.
SAMPLE ANNOTATED ARTICLE
SAMPLE ANNOTATED ADVERTISEMENT
b Sketch an outline.
c Summarize to demonstrate understanding.
d Analyze to demonstrate critical thinking.
e Sample student essay: Analysis of an article
SAMPLE ANALYSIS PAPER
6 Constructing reasonable arguments
a Examine your issue’s social and intellectual
contexts.
b View your audience as a panel of jurors.
c Establish credibility and state your position.
d Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
e Support your claims with specific evidence.
f Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
g Build common ground.
SAMPLE ARGUMENT PAPER
7 Evaluating arguments
a Distinguish between reasonable and fallacious argumentative tactics.
b Distinguish between legitimate and unfair emotional appeals.
c Judge how fairly a writer handles opposing views.
Clarity
8 Prefer active verbs.
a Active versus passive verbs
b Active versus be verbs
c Subject that names the actor
9 Balance parallel ideas.
a Parallel ideas in a series
b Parallel ideas presented as pairs
c Repetition of function words
10 Add needed words.
a In compound structures
b that
c In comparisons
d a, an, and the
11 Untangle mixed constructions.
a Mixed grammar
b Illogical connections
c is when, is where, and reason . . . is because
12 Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers.
a Limiting modifiers
b Misplaced phrases and clauses
c Awkwardly placed modifiers
d Split infinitives
e Dangling modifiers
13 Eliminate distracting shifts.
a Point of view (person, number)
b Verb tense
c Verb mood, voice
d Indirect to direct questions or quotations
14 Emphasize key ideas.
a Coordination and subordination
b Choppy sentences
c Ineffective or excessive coordination
d Ineffective subordination
e Excessive subordination
f Other techniques
15 Provide some variety.
a Sentence openings
b Sentence structures
c Inverted order
16 Tighten wordy sentences.
a Redundancies
b Unnecessary repetition
c Empty or inflated phrases
d Simplifying the structure
e Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single
words
17 Choose appropriate language.
a Jargon
b Pretentious language, euphemisms,
“doublespeak”
c Slang, regional expressions, nonstandard
English
d Levels of formality
e Sexist language
f Offensive language
18 Find the exact words.
a Connotations
b Specific, concrete nouns
c Misused words
d Standard idioms
e Clichés
f Figures of speech
Grammar
19 Repair sentence fragments.
a Subordinate clauses
b Phrases
c Other fragmented word groups
d Acceptable fragments
20 Revise run-on sentences.
a Correction with coordinating conjunction
b Correction with semicolon, colon, or dash
c Correction by separating sentences
d Correction by restructuring
21 Make subjects and verbs agree.
a Standard subject-verb combinations
b Words between subject and verb
c Subjects joined with and
d Subjects joined with or, nor, either . . . or,
or neither . . . nor
e Indefinite pronouns
f Collective nouns
g Subject following verb
h Subject, not subject complement
i who, which, and that
j Words with plural form, singular meaning
k Titles of works, company names, words
mentioned as words, gerund phrases
22 Make pronouns and antecedents agree.
a Singular with singular, plural with plural
(indefinite pronouns, generic nouns)
b Collective nouns
c Antecedents joined with and
d Antecedents joined with or, nor, either . . . or,
or neither . . . nor
23 Make pronoun references clear.
a Ambiguous or remote reference
b Broad reference of this, that, which, and it
c Implied antecedents
d Indefinite use of they, it, and you
e who for persons, which or that for things
24 Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.
a Subjective case for subjects and subject
complements
b Objective case for objects
c Appositives
d Pronoun following than or as
e we or us before a noun
f Subjects and objects of infinitives
g Pronoun modifying a gerund
25 Distinguish between who and whom.
a In subordinate clauses
b In questions
c As subjects or objects of infinitives
26 Choose adjectives and adverbs with care.
a Adjectives to modify nouns
b Adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs
c good and well, bad and badly
d Comparatives and superlatives
e Double negatives
27 Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and
moods in standard English.
a Irregular verbs
b lie and lay
c -s (or -es) endings
d -ed endings
e Omitted verbs
f Verb tense
g Subjunctive mood
Multilingual Writers and ESL Challenges
28 Verbs
a Appropriate form and tense
b Passive voice
c Base form after a modal
d Negative verb forms
e Verbs in conditional sentences
f Verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives
29 Articles
a Articles and other noun markers
b When to use the
c When to use a or an
d When not to use a or an
e No articles with general nouns
f Articles with proper nouns
30 Sentence structure
a Linking verb between a subject and its
complement
b A subject in every sentence
c Repeated nouns or pronouns with the same
grammatical function
d Repeated objects, adverbs in adjective
clauses
e Mixed constructions with although
or because
f Placement of adverbs
g Present participles and past participles
h Order of cumulative adjectives
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions
a Prepositions showing time and place
b Noun (including -ing form) after a
preposition
c Common adjective + preposition
combinations
d Common verb + preposition combinations
Punctuation
32 The comma
a Independent clauses joined with and, but, etc.
b Introductory elements
c Items in a series
d Coordinate adjectives
e Nonrestrictive elements
f Transitions, parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, contrasts
g Direct address, yes and no, interrogative tags, interjections
h he said, etc.
i Dates, addresses, titles, numbers
j To prevent confusion
33 Unnecessary commas
a Between compound elements that are not independent clauses
b Between a verb and its subject or object
c Before the first or after the last item in a series
d Between cumulative adjectives, an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective
e Before and after restrictive or mildly parenthetical elements
f Before essential concluding adverbial elements
g After a phrase beginning an inverted sentence
h Other misuses
34 The semicolon
a Between independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction
b Between independent clauses linked with a transitional expression
c In a series containing internal punctuation
d Misuses
35 The colon
a Before a list, an appositive, or a quotation
b Between independent clauses
c Conventional uses
d Misuses
36 The apostrophe
a Possessive nouns
b Possessive indefinite pronouns
c Contractions
d Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, words mentioned as words
e Misuses
37 Quotation marks
a Direct quotations
b Quotation within a quotation
c Titles of short works
d Words as words
e With other punctuation marks
f Misuses
38 End punctuation
a The period
b The question mark
c The exclamation point
39 Other punctuation
a The dash
b Parentheses
c Brackets
d The ellipsis mark
e The slash
Mechanics
40 Abbreviations
a Titles with proper names
b Familiar abbreviations
c Conventional abbreviations
d Latin abbreviations
e Inappropriate abbreviations
41 Numbers
a Spelling out
b Using numerals
42 Italics
a Title of works
b Names of ships, spacecraft, and aircraft
c Foreign words
d Words as words, letters as letters, numbers as numbers
43 Spelling
a Spelling rules
b The dictionary
c Words that sound alike
d Commonly misspelled words
44 The hyphen
a Compound words
b Hyphenated adjectives
c Fractions and compound numbers
d With certain prefixes and suffixes
e To avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters
f Division of words and electronic addresses
45 Capitalization
a Proper vs. common nouns
b Titles with proper names
c Titles and subtitles of works
d First word of a sentence
e First word of a quoted sentence
f First word after a colon
g Abbreviations
Grammar Basics
46 Parts of speech
a Nouns
b Pronouns
c Verbs
d Adjectives
e Adverbs
f Prepositions
g Conjunctions
h Interjections
47 Sentence patterns
a Subjects
b Verbs, objects, and complements
c Pattern variations
48 Subordinate word groups
a Prepositional phrases
b Verbal phrases
c Appositive phrases
d Absolute phrases
e Subordinate clauses
49 Sentence types
a Sentence structures
b Sentence purposes
Document Design
50 Principles of document design
a Selecting appropriate format options
b Using headings to guide readers
c Using lists to guide readers
d Adding visuals that support your purpose
51 Academic formatting
52 Business formatting
a Using established conventions for business letters
b Writing effective resumes and cover letters
c Writing clear and concise memos
d Writing effective e-mail messages
Research
53 Conducting research
a Posing questions worth exploring
b Mapping out a search strategy
c Searching a database or consulting a print index to locate articles
d Consulting the library’s catalog to locate books
e Using a variety of online tools to locate other sources
f Using other search tools
g Conducting field research
54 Evaluating sources
a Determining how a source might contribute to your writing
b Selecting sources worth your time and attention
c Selecting appropriate versions of online sources
d Reading with an open mind and a critical eye
e Assessing Web sources with special care
55 Managing information; avoiding plagiarism
a Maintaining a working bibliography
b Keeping track of source materials
c Avoiding unintentional plagiarism
Writing papers in MLA style
56 Supporting a thesis
a Forming a working thesis
b Organizing ideas with a rough outline
c Using sources to inform and support your argument
57 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
a Citing quotations and borrowed ideas
b Enclosing borrowed language in quotation marks
c Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words
58 Integrating sources
a Using quotations appropriately
b Using signal phrases to integrate sources
c Synthesizing sources
59 Documenting sources in MLA style
a MLA in-text citations
b MLA list of works cited
c MLA information notes (optional)
60 MLA manuscript format; student research process and sample paper
a MLA manuscript format
b Highlights of one student’s research process
c Sample MLA research paper
Writing papers in APA style
61 Supporting a thesis
a Forming a working thesis
b Organizing ideas
c Using sources to inform and support your argument
62 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
a Citing quotations and borrowed ideas
b Enclosing borrowed language in quotation marks
c Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words
63 Integrating sources
a Using quotations appropriately
b Using signal phrases to integrate sources
c Synthesizing sources
64 Documenting sources in APA style
a APA in-text citations
b APA list of works cited
65 APA manuscript format; sample paper
a APA manuscript format
b Sample MLA research paper